I  need a study guide outline made for me after reading the following info & chapters in this text book.

I want this section of the book read: genetics/evolution, lesson 1, scientific method, and theory/evolution. Here's the ISBN of the book: 9780136011606

create a review sheet in word document using the terms and concepts listed below:

Terms

Anthropology
Culture
Evolution
Holism
Ecosystemics
Bio-cultural Evolution
Cultural Anthropology
Ethnography
Ethnocentric
Cultural relativism
Medical anthropology
Applied anthropology
Archaeology
Artifacts
Material culture
Linguistic Anthropology
Physical/Biological Anthropology
Human Evolution
Human Variation

Sub Fields of Biological Anthropology

- Paleoanthropology
- Anthropometry
- Genetics
- Molecular
- Anthropology
- Primatology
- Osteology
- Paleopathology
- Forensic Anthropology

Scientific method
Empirical approach
Inference
Assumption
Data
Quantitative Data
Qualitative data
Hypothesis
Theory
Scientific testing
Continuum
Continuous Data
Categorical Data

Concepts

1. What is Anthropology and how do we approach it as a science?
2. What are Physical Anthropology and its major subfields and disciplines?
3. Explain the scientific method.
4. What is the difference between a theory and a hypothesis?
5. What is Evolution?

Here's some of the reading in additon to the textbook:

The Theory of Evolution

In Anthropology, we study religion as an important cohesive institution in societies, and by definition, religion is anything that attempts to explain phenomenon that we cannot explain by direct observation or through the scientific method. Religion deals with faith and beliefs, while observable evidence and facts fall in the realm of science.  It is true that evolution is a theory that does not require divine intervention, but it also does not deny the possibility. (No, I am not arguing intelligent design). I am arguing that evolution and creationism can coincide in a world view, as evidenced by the fact that many evolutionary scientists I know are also devotedly religious people because they know and understand the theory of evolution and do not see it as a threat or contradiction to their faith. In fact, The Roman Catholic religion officially accepts evolution as scientific fact. It is a matter of being educated in both religion and science and accepting the distinction. It is true that there are extremists on both sides that argue that the other side is wrong. Frankly, I think anyone that says the theory of evolution proves that there is no god or supernatural is as ignorant and closed minded as anyone that says evolution does not exist. Both religion and science play important roles in culture. Most people that argue against evolution have been misinformed about what it actually states and what it means. For example no where in evolutionary theory does it say that man evolved from monkeys. In fact, according to the definition of evolution, it is nothing more than a change in gene frequencies (percentages) from one generation to the next. The idea is that all life including humans, monkeys, trees, bacteria and so on can change from one generation to the next to be better adapted to the environment and that over time if enough changes accumulate, a new species can originate. This process has been going on since the first life appeared on this planet, and all species share common ancestor species at some point in the past.  Evolution - A change in the gene frequency in a population of biological organisms from one generation to the nextAs you will see, the primary evolutionary hypotheses 1) that gene frequencies change from one generation to the next and 2) that the accumulation of enough differences can create a new species have been supported by observable evidence and rigorous testing to the point of no longer considering these ideas hypotheses, but rather the modern syntheses of the theory of evolution. Humans did not evolve from monkeys, but somewhere in the past, monkeys and humans did share a common ancestor. There is more understood about evolution than there is about gravity in science today. For all the evidence for gravity we have, it is considered a Law in science, but we still can not explain its mechanism or how it works.  In evolution we not only know that it exists but also have established 5 different mechanisms by which gene frequencies can change from one generation to the next. I, of course, have a hypothesis for a mechanism for gravity, but I’m not telling.

From an anthropological standpoint, the issue that some religions have with the theory of evolution is the same issue that some religions had with the idea that the earth is not flat and that it is not the center of the solar system. It’s hard to imagine, but at one time, the round earth and the heliocentric solar system that we take as common knowledge today were considered as evil or anti-religious as evolution is considered by some religions today. Galileo was arrested and confined to his home for the remainder of his life for contradicting the Catholic Church and doctrine and supporting the idea of a sun centered solar system rather than an earth as the center of the universe. Since religion has the role of explaining that which cannot be explained by science, it makes perfect sense that religious officials would argue against any new discoveries in science that give a natural explanation for something that previously could only be explained in the realm of the supernatural. New discovery in science necessarily contradicts religious beliefs every time, and religions see this as a threat because people will try to use it as evidence that other aspects of the religion are not supernatural as well. What many refuse to realize is that this only happens in extreme cases of close-minded scientists, and the majority of scientists understand that there are many aspects of our natural world that science has no explanation for and that since there is no way to test these hypotheses, it requires faith to explain their occurrence. There are, in reality, so many questions that science cannot currently answer that it seems just as foolish to be close-minded about religion and the existence of supernatural beings as it does to be close-minded about evolution, even now that we have proven, through the scientific method, that evolution does in fact happen.

In Modern Biology there is no question about it. Evolution exists, regardless of what you believe about everything else. And further, evolution makes sense even if you are a creationist because a supreme creator being would have wanted life to be able to adapt and continue surviving, as the environment changed around it. From the religious side, it is an issue of accepting that new scientific discovery may mean that something that was accepted on faith now has a verifiable explanation that is different than the faith model, but it in no way replaces one's faith because no scientific discovery will explain every mystery. From the scientific side, it is a matter of realizing that evolution is just one aspect of the world that we now understand, and there is still much more that we are not able to explain and we need to keep an open mind about the possibilities. There should not be any conflict between evolution and creationism in today’s culture. Any conflict that still exists is due to ignorance from both sides of the issue.    

For this course you are required to learn and be knowledgeable of the theory of evolution. I do not care what your personal beliefs are nor will I permit anyone to preach their personal beliefs in this course. We start by accepting evolution as fact and as a valid scientific theory that has principles that underlie all modern biology and physical anthropology. My purpose is not to convert you; it is to educate you, and I do not care if by the end of this course, you leave believing in it or not. What I do care is that you understand it. If you are interested in it, then you should stay in this course and learn it. If you are adamant about creationism and refuse to reconcile evolution and creationism, then you should stay in this course and at least learn what you are fighting against, so you can create intelligent arguments against it instead of the simple-minded, uneducated arguments that are currently used. Learning what it is actually about can only help you fight against it in the future. But you will need to learn it in the course, and if you cannot handle that, I recommend that you drop the course now because I will not tolerate ignorance. It is my hope that you stay in the course. I guarantee that you will view it differently in the end because most of what you think you know about it is false. Anthropology is basically the study of everything human in the past and the present. It not only studies our modern form and culture but also how we got to be this way by reconstructing the past lifestyles and cultures of our human and primate ancestors and relatives. It uses Holism, meaning it not only encompasses all aspects of humans. from culture to language to biology in the present and past, but it also considers these aspects together. In other words, you can’t understand human biology without understanding something about culture as well, and vice versa. Anthropology uses an empirical approach as well meaning it uses systematic data collection and analysis. It is divided into four major subfields that are united by their focus on humans and their ancestors.  Its primary focus is on biology and culture but it also studies linguistics and language as a way of transmitting culture, and archaeology as a method of discovering and learning about humans in the past.

Cultural Anthropology

Cultural Anthropology is the study of all aspects of human behavior. It focuses on that unique human ability to adapt to the environment through behavior, which is what we call culture. As you will see, other species do have culture to different degrees, but no species have embraced it and taken it to the complex levels that humans have. Cultural anthropology is often referred to by it European name of Social Anthropology.

Linguistic Anthropology

Linguistic Anthropology studies all aspects of human speech and language. Language is the mechanism by which we understand, learn, and communicate our culture. It is how we view our world. Through the study of linguistics we can not only understand more about the way people think, but we can also trace the past movements and contacts of peoples by language similarities and differences.   

Archaeology

Archaeology is the study of past cultures and lifestyles. It uses scientific methods to discover, recover, and rebuild our past environments and cultures in order to understand the behaviors and biology of our ancestors and how we evolved into the cultures and biology we have today. Where Cultural Anthropology and Linguistic Anthropology generally fall into the realm of social science, Archaeology and Physical Anthropology are considered Natural Science. You do not need a whip and cool hat to be an Archaeologist, but it sure helps. 

Physical Anthropology

Physical Anthropology, (which is how it is generally called in the US), or Biological Anthropology (which is European), is the study of human biology within the framework of evolution and with an emphasis on the interaction of biology and culture. I do tend to use the terms interchangeably as synonyms but I actually prefer Biological because I feel that to many lay people “Physical” Anthropology is the study of skeletal material, Osteology and hominid evolution and forensic anthropology only. However, we actually study much more than just skeletal remains. We work in all areas of human evolution and biology in both contemporary and past populations. “Biological” seems to imply the broader scope.

Subfields of Physical Anthropology

Each major subfield is further divided into Foci. Anthropologists often claim multiple fuci from within subfields and sometimes across subfields as well. For instance though my research falls into the realm of human variation and I call myself a physical anthropologist, I consider myself a bio-cultural anthropologist, one that specializes in the interaction of culture and biology. I study both evolutionary biology and cultural anthropology in an attempt to explain how culture and biology interact to create humans in their modern forms. I list evolutionary biology, applied medical anthropology, evolutionary medicine, human growth and development, human anatomy, and genetics  as my specialties or foci in Biological Anthropology. My educational background focused primarily on all aspects of Cultural Anthropology and Physical Anthropology and overlaps into Linguistics and Archaeology. Like most anthropologists, I consider myself a broadly trained (holistic) Anthropologist with a primary interest in one of the four subfields. Most universities require some course work in at least 3 of the major subfields of anthropology; some require all four to get an advanced degree in anthropology. To study modern Human Variation you have to also be a student of Cultural Anthropology to some degree just as to study Hominid Evolution you must study aspects of Archaeology. All anthropologists overlap subfields in their education but tend to focus on specialties within a subfield for their research. To call yourself a Physical Anthropologist or a Biological Anthropologist means you have studied all aspects of the subfield. 

Human Evolution and Human Variation are generally considered the major categories of Physical Anthropology, but they overlap considerably. Human Evolution generally includes Hominid and Primate Evolution, Paleontology (the study of Human evolution as evidenced in the fossil record), Primatology (the study of biology and behavior of the living members of the Primate Order), Primate Paleontology (the study of the primate fossil record), Osteology (the study of the human skeletal material), and Genetics (the study of inheritance). Human Variation generally includes Osteology, Genetics,  Evolutionary Biology, Human Anatomy and Biology, Growth and Development,  Anthropometrics (the measurement of the human body), and Applied areas in Forensic Anthropology (dealing with Identification of human remains for legal and historical purposes) and Medical Anthropology or Evolutionary Medicine (dealing with understanding the evolutionary nature of chronic and infectious disease in humans and improving health through this knowledge). 

The Scientific Method

Yeah, I know, every science course starts with it, but I like to break it down a little more than the average science course.   

As a natural science, Physical Anthropology employs the scientific method as its primary tool for inquiry. This is an empirical approach that uses observable data, statistical analysis, and rigorous testing. It has the advantage of being well tested and extremely effective as a methodology for natural science. It has been proven to be an effective method for scientific inquiry and applied science. The key is to start with a hypothesis and collect data to test it rather than trying to fit data to a theory which can be very biased. It also has the advantage of being flexible and adjustable for retesting. 

Scientific Method

Basically we start with an inference, which is an observation based on something you observed. We avoid starting with assumptions, which are not based on observation but rather based on unsubstantiated ideas similar to stereotypes. From the inference you create a hypothesis which is a causal statement, meaning it has an action, a result and an explanation as to why one would get that result. You may have learned that a hypothesis is an “if, then” statement.  This is wrong, however, because an “if, then” statement does not have causality. This is actually the definition of a prediction. A hypothesis can be worded, but does not have to be worded, as an “if, then, because” statement. A statement without causality is a prediction, and predictions are “if, then” statements we make based on our hypothesis that we use to create our tests.

If the results of your test come back false, then we reject the hypothesis and have to rethink and go back to the start and form a new hypothesis and start the process over.  If we get partial support for the hypothesis, then we may decide to modify or test and retest. However, if our test verifies our predictions we made based on our hypothesis, then we have some data to support the hypothesis, but a hypothesis can never be proved; it can only be supported. We do this to leave the door open for new discovery and new ways to test hypotheses that might find an exception and, therefore, require modification of the causal explanation. Supported hypotheses are then retested over and over, looking for an exception. If the hypothesis endures numerous tests over a long enough period of time, and we can find no evidence to suggest the hypothesis should be rejected in any way, we then up-grade the hypothesis to a theory. Further still, theories that have held up under the test of time and overwhelming data eventually become Laws--such as the Law of Gravity. Evolution is currently considered a Theory; it is a hypothesis that has been tested and supported so much without being rejected that we consider it a theory and use it as a basis for developing new hypotheses. It is well on its way to being considered a Law.